The Abbasid caliphate was brought down in a violent confrontation with invaders from the East. Following the devastation, the Muslim state began to piece itself back together, but it never fully regained the splendor and glory of its Golden Age.

Mongol Invaders

In the thirteenth century, the Muslim state began to succumb to invaders from central Asia, the Mongols. Known as fierce nomadic fighters, the Mongols invaded Baghdad and virtually destroyed the city. They continued through the region, plundering and pillaging all the way to Egypt. Mongol forces killed the last of the Abbasid caliphs in 1258 C.E. The Mongol invasions wreaked havoc on the Muslim world. The vast libraries were burned to the ground, scholars and intellectuals were murdered, and much of the cultural legacy was destroyed.

By 1300 C.E., the Mongol leaders had largely converted to Islam and ceased their attacks. In fact, they refocused on rebuilding mosques and schools. However, the damage was done. The weakened Islamic empire was fragmented and vulnerable.

As the Muslim empire began to splinter, various local governors attempted to retain control of their own area. On the border between the Byzantine and Islamic empires, one group proved successful: the family of the Ottomans.

Rise of the Ottomans

The Ottomans had proven to be very successful in uniting the territory within their reach. By the late fourteenth century C.E., they had control of what is now Turkey and Greece, and began threatening Constantinople, the heart of the Byzantine Empire. A series of early Ottoman rulers expanded their control, and finally conquered Constantinople in 1453 C.E. after a series of battles. The great city, first known as Byzantium and then as Constantinople (named after Emperor Constantine), was renamed Istanbul.

Suleiman the Magnificent

As a leader and statesman, Suleiman the Magnificent has the distinction of being one of the enduring figures of Ottoman history. He stayed in power for nearly fifty years, dying in 1566 C.E. During his rule, the Ottoman Empire experienced its own Golden Age.

Suleiman was known as a balanced lawgiver who supervised some of the most beautiful Islamic construction projects. Several large monuments in Turkey were built during his reign, including the Suleiman Mosque in Istanbul. Under Suleiman's leadership, Ottoman territories nearly doubled in size. A just ruler, Suleiman ensured that all Ottoman lands respected freedom of worship, and all races and religions lived freely. His government created elaborate social welfare programs and increased commerce opportunities.

The Fall of the Ottoman Empire

During the rule of Suleiman, the Ottoman Empire was in the center of the world. Perfectly poised between Africa, Asia, and Europe, the empire served as a bridge between the East and the West. However, the peak of Ottoman civilization could not be sustained. Later rulers lacked Suleiman's ability and competence.

The early decline of the Ottoman Empire was brought about primarily through internal decay. Inefficiency and corruption started to become commonplace, and the rulers became more isolated and out of touch. The empire began to lose territory due to internal revolt, a process that later accelerated during aggressive European expansion and colonization.

The final fall of the Ottoman Empire came about in the aftermath of World War I. The Ottomans had formed an alliance with Germany, which turned out to be the losing side. The Arab revolt (dramatized in the film Lawrence of Arabia) aided the Allied victory against the Germans and Turks. Britain and France then set about dividing what remained of the Ottoman Empire between the allied victors.