Peter Abelard
Aside from his controversial personal life, Abelard (1079–1142) is noted in the history of philosophy for his dialectical ability, his philosophy of universals, and his defense of what would later be called “the divine command theory” of morals.
Abelard's Life and Doctrine of Nominalism
Abelard was born near Nantes, France, into a noble Parisian family. He studied philosophy and theology and soon achieved a reputation as a contentious and brilliant student. It was his nature to be controversial: he challenged ideas and people, including his professors. After taking courses, he would go on to teach the same subject in competition with his teachers.
Most renowned of all the events of Abelard's life is his seduction of Héloise, niece of Canon Fulbert of Notre Dame, when he was 35 years old. When their child was born they married secretly. Her uncle was furious at Abelard. Héloise's brothers broke into his room at night and castrated him. Subsequently Héloise became a nun and Abelard a monk in an abbey outside of Paris.
The scandal followed him, however. His book On the Divine Unity and Trinity was condemned and burned at the ecclesiastical council at Soissons in 1121. Twenty years later he was summoned to a council at Sens and was prosecuted for heresy because of his Introduction to Theology. It was his position on universals, known as nominalism, that led him to be condemned in 1140, and he died on his way to Rome to defend himself.
The remains of Peter Abelard and Héloise are presumed to lie in the cemetery of Père-Lachaise in eastern Paris. Their remains were transferred there in 1817 and contributed greatly to the popularity of that cemetery. Lovers and lovelorn people still leave letters at the crypt, in tribute to the couple in hope of finding true love.
Abelard engaged in the debate about universals, one of the abiding controversies of the time. A universal, such as “redness,” or “squareness,” is something that is common to many particular things. The problem about universals is trying to figure out what kind of realities they are. In other words, what is their metaphysical status? What relationship do universals such as “goodness” or “sweetness” have to reality?
Porphyry (c. 234-c. 304), the Neo-Platonic philosopher, had already posed three questions about universals:
Whether universals
exist in reality independently or
exist in the understanding alone
If they exist in reality, whether they are
immaterial or
material
Whether they
are separate from sensible objects or
are not separate from sensible objects
For Abelard, universals such as beauty and goodness and rectangularity exist a) in the understanding alone, are b) immaterial, and c) are separate from sensible objects. This alone was controversial, since it implied that universals existed mentally, but not in any objective sense. In particular, Abelard maintained that universals existed “nominally,” or in name only.
Over time, life in a monastery became intolerable for Abelard. He was finally allowed to leave. In a deserted place near Nogent-sur-Seine, he built himself a cabin of stubble and reeds, and became a hermit. As his retreat became known, students flocked to him from Paris, spreading over the wilderness around him in tents and huts. He found consolation in teaching.
Nominalism holds that you can utter words such as redness and circular, but that these terms exist only mentally, not extramentally. That is, universals do not exist as things in the real world. The universal “redness” is predicable of many different red things and may capture what red things bear in common. That is what justifies the use of the term.
Morality and Divine Commands
In Ethics or Know Thyself Abelard addressed the concepts sin, vice, and evil. Acts are good when they are in agreement with what God wills for people, and they are evil or wicked when they express disregard for God or go against what he commands, according to Abelard. It is neither the act itself nor the will that led to it which is sinful. “God considers not what is done, but in what spirit it is done; and the praise or merit of the agent lies not in the deed, but in the intention.” What makes actions sinful is that they are contrary to God's will.
But if you act with a sincere conscience and do what you believe is right, you might act in error but not in sin. Abelard cites the words of Jesus about his persecutors, “Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do.” In fact, Abelard maintained that even prohibited acts — such as sleeping with another man's wife — are sinless if they are done in ignorance. So acts themselves are neutral, until you learn that they accord or fail to accord with God's will.
Abelard's Dialectic
Abelard is now known as a philosopher who had an ill-fated love affair with Héloise. In addition, he was known as a poet and composer. He composed love songs for Héloise that are now lost and remain unidentified. Héloise praised the songs in a letter: “The great charm and sweetness in language and music, and a soft attractiveness of the melody obliged even the unlettered.”
Abelard's most famous work was Sic et Non (Yes and No). Here Abelard exhibited a style of dialectical discussion that was to become familiar in Scholastic times. He set out more than 150 questions on which Church Fathers offered conflicting views. His goal was to challenge students to resolve these theological disputes. “By doubting we come to questioning, and by questioning we perceive the truth,” Abelard said.
Thomas Aquinas later modified Abelard's method. An added feature of Abelard's methodology was his resolution of the opposing disputes. Even in employing this technique Abelard stirred controversy. He upset those traditionalists because he viewed theology as an opportunity for vigorous debate and questioning instead of meditation and acceptance.
But there was no doubt where his allegiance lay. After his condemnation in 1141, he wrote to Héloise: “I do not want to be a philosopher if it is necessary to deny Paul. I do not want to be Aristotle if it is necessary to be separated from Christ.”
