Aristotle's ethics are teleological. The Greek root telos means “end,” “goal,” or “purpose.” Aristotle sounds the keynote of his moral philosophy in the very first line of the Nicomachean Ethics: “Every art and every inquiry, every action and choice, seems to aim at some good; whence the good has rightly been defined as that at which all things aim.” But what is the aim or “end” of human behavior? Aristotle says that it is happiness. The means to that end is a state of character he calls virtue. Simply put, a person who lives a virtuous life will have a better chance at attaining happiness than one who lives without virtues.

Happiness

Aristotle explains that the doctor's art aims at health, and the shipbuilder's craft aims at a safe voyage. You could go further and say that the musician's art aims at pleasing melodies and the sculptor's art aims at a fine statue. But these kinds of ends have further ends or goods in view. But there must be some end that is ultimate. This ultimate good will be one you desire for its own sake. Men agree that this good is happiness, he says.

This means that a “right” action is one that promotes happiness. A wrong action is one that is opposed to the attainment of happiness.

But people understand different things by happiness. Some people identify happiness with pleasure, Aristotle says. But surely pleasure is not identical with happiness. For pleasure is fleeting and ephemeral; happiness is a more lasting good. Further, beasts can experience pleasure, so it is not a peculiarly human good. Others equate happiness with honor, like the honor attained by a statesman. But this sort of honor depends more on the giver and is not really our own. By contrast, happiness must be something you can attain by your own activity. Nor can happiness be the activity of growth or reproduction, since even plants can do that much. Nor can happiness be equated with sensation, because even animals are capable of sensations.

Happiness must be an activity of that which is peculiar to man among natural beings — activity in accordance with reason. Now the excellence or virtue of each thing lies in the efficiency of its peculiar function; therefore “human good turns out to be activity of the soul in accordance with virtue, and if there are more than one virtue, in accordance with the best and most complete.” In other words, the criteria of the good for man are finality and self-sufficiency — it is valued for its own sake — and its achievement will leave nothing to be desired.

The good must be found in man's own function as a man. Aristotle turns to his metaphysics and his position on matter and form, potentiality and actuality. The usual illustration is that of the acorn. Relative to the tree the acorn is matter, an unrealized possibility that will eventuate in the actuality of form, the oak tree. Thus the end or “telos” of the acorn is integral to its nature, and its “good” is to fulfill its formal function well — to become a strong well-shaped tree.

For man, this activity will be virtuous, since there are intellectual virtues, like reasoning, and moral virtues, like self-control and courage. So, happiness consists of virtuous activity, not only for brief periods but over the course of a life. This kind of happiness will be incomplete without some external goods. Aristotle says you are aided in the pursuit of happiness by having good parents, friends, a modicum of material well-being, even good looks.

Virtue and the Mean

More than anything, one will be aided in the pursuit of happiness by having virtue. Aristotle defines virtue as a disposition. A disposition is developed over time. For instance, you are not born with courage. You develop a disposition — or capacity — for courage by doing courageous acts. The same is true of cultivating other virtues. You cannot have the disposition to self-control without having practiced discipline on some matter. You cannot keep from acting like a buffoon without some instruction or experience in the matter. All this indicates that the virtues are acquired, not innate.

A love of proportion and order can be seen in Greek art and drama. And in discussing virtue Aristotle adopts a very Greek notion of proportion. Good actions must have a certain proportion. A virtuous action is a “mean” between two extremes. Mean is a mathematical term meaning “a midway point.” Each of the extremes is a vice. For example, in the act of giving money, the good action will be to give the right amount, which lies between giving too much on the one hand, and not giving enough on the other. You cannot give so much to the bride and groom on their wedding day that you have nothing left for yourself. That is the vice of excess. On the other hand, you cannot give so little that your giving is stingy — that is the vice of defect. There is a mean amount to give.

Aristotle's concept of the midway point between excessive and defective actions has been referred to as the “Golden Mean.”

Having a virtuous character is a means to the end of human happiness. People with the vices stand less of a chance of attaining happiness than those without them.