Following a cue from David Hume, who believed in mankind's gravitation toward things that have a utility, or function, Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) was a social reformer whose claim to fame is a book called An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. The gist of it is an old theory, and a somewhat obvious one: Humans seek the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain.

The Pursuit of Pleasure

Bentham takes this theory from the individual level to the society as a whole. He argued that you can put a precise scientific value on pleasure and pain. What the majority perceives as pleasure and comfort should be the desired status quo, so long as no harm is done. Public policy decisions and laws should be devised to serve that greater good. As far as punishments are concerned, they should be severe enough to be a deterrent and based on the nature of the offense. Thus, the precept “a punishment to fit the crime” is a Utilitarian principle.

Bentham advocated the philosophy of Hedonism, but like Epicureanism, it does not mean the reckless pursuit of pleasure. Bentham believed in Social Hedonism, which he called, “The greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number.” Bentham associated morality with happiness, and the more happiness an act provided, the more moral he thought it was (and vice versa). Bentham and Utilitarianism took a lot of heat as a libertine philosophy. This philosophy is also called consequentialism, meaning that the consequences of your actions determine their morality.

The Calculus of Felicity

Bentham's empirical and scientific application to the pleasure principle resulted in his making a mathematical formula to precisely chart the pleasure and happiness factor of any particular activity. He broke the equation down into seven categories:

• Intensity: How powerful is the pleasure?

• Duration: How long lasting is the pleasure?

• Certainty: How guaranteed is the pleasure?

• Proximity: How close is the pleasure?

• Fecundity: Will this pleasurable activity generate additional pleasures?

• Purity: How pain-free is this particular pleasure?

• Extent: How many other citizens will experience this pleasure?

Bentham believed that people should apply this formula to all the pleasures in their lives. He called this the Calculus of Felicity, which Bentham believed would eventually become second nature.